Influences of Extrinsic Motivation Techniques Essay

Introduction Parallon Workforce Management Solutions falls under the Workforce Management umbrella. An organization still in its infancy, and financially supported and entrusted by HCA, a hospital organization mogul in its industry. Currently, the DHP (Dependent Healthcare Professional) Credentialing department has begun to make its presence in the area since mid-2007; today it has gradually increased its employee base and has tremendously more than quadrupled its customer base. Having a centralized corporate office in Sunrise, FL has allowed for many job opportunities in the south Florida area. As the Finance Director, overall responsibilities include, but are not limited to overseeing the financial records of the department, communicating with staff accountants and accounts payable/receivable on a regular basis. Create process flows for financial purposes, create and decipher financial projections for the department. Accurately running and reading financial  reports and statements; and having an overall healthy attitude towards the organization. Organization Overview â€Å"Workforce Management Solutions is an industry leader in healthcare staffing management, enhancing our customers’ quality of care and providing unique technologies to deliver unparalleled efficiencies. Since our inception in 1993, we have been providing staffing resources for Hospital Corporation of America (HCA), one of the nation’s leading providers of healthcare services. Currently, we serve hundreds of hospitals, ambulatory service facilities and outpatient centers nationwide, placing thousands of healthcare professionals each year. We offer every client full-service solutions that include contingent staffing, recruiting and enhanced productivity and scheduling technology. Our full-service, integrated business model encompasses: Per Diem Staffing – These comprehensive contracting services meet every need, from background checks and orientation to scheduling technology and systems training. We have 11 per diem staffing offices nationwide, having logged m ore than 3.3 million hours of work at pre-negotiated, below-market rates. Travel Staffing – Customers benefit from the services of 900+ traveling nurses and allied health professionals while Workforce Management Solutions takes on all the associated administrative and logistical burdens. Integrated Staffing and Scheduling Technology – Our custom-designed, proprietary online facility scheduling system enhances efficiency, saves money, provides for the optimization of schedules and empowers hospital staff members. Our Facility Scheduler allows employees to self-schedule with no hardware to purchase or software to install. Additional software components include volume forecasting. Staff Scheduling Redesign and Consulting – Our highly scalable, customizable technology helps managers create staffing schedules that accurately match rising and falling workloads. We train your team to plan, monitor and control staffing so needs and expectations are met efficiently and cost effectively. Permanent Placement and Recruiting – We are experts at providing professional staff and management-level recruiting solutions to our clients in the areas of nursing, medical imaging, allied health and case management† (â€Å"Parallon workforce management,† 201 1). In addition, Parallon Workforce Management Solution houses a wonderful portfolio under its umbrella of business  initiative: â€Å"Parallon’s full portfolio of unique business solutions includes group purchasing, staffing management, supply chain, project management, revenue cycle and other business processes. Parallon Business Solutions offers a comprehensive solution that no other company can claim. As partners, we work in parallel to deliver customized solutions that ensure your success. As fellow operators, we understand your challenges and continually innovate to respond to the needs of a dynamic marketplace. Business Performance Group est. 2000, offers end-to-end revenue cycle services from patient registration to billing and collections, and everything in between. To meet the needs of our providers we have expanded our capabilities to deliver a wide range of additional processes. We tailor our service to your needs—whether providing a single solution or dedica ting our full resources and scale as your outsourced partner. HealthTrust Purchasing Group, est. 1999, is the only committed model group purchasing organization. The foundation of our success is aligned decision making and compliance across our 1,400+ member partners. The result is a comprehensive portfolio that is consistently 10 percent better than any other purchasing alliance. Supply Chain Solutions has successfully transformed over 170 facilities with its shared services platform, resulting in over $1 billion in documented savings. With more than 10 years of progressive experience, the strength of Parallon is our people, processes and proven results. Because we are supply chain operators like you, we invite you to tour our facilities and see the innovation in action. Workforce Management Solutions, est. 1993, began as a provider to the largest employer of nurses in the country. We offer our services—training and credentialing, optimal high-caliber staffing placement, recruiting alternatives and industry-leading scheduling technology—creating unparalleled value and efficiencies† (â€Å"Parallon workforce management,â €  2011). Preliminary Problem Statement The DHP Credentialing department at PWMS has a poor management structure, unequipped to handle the influx of applicants filtering on a daily basis. Inability to create, and sustain acceptable customer service practices, constant increase workloads and entry level employees with no vision, direction, or view of elevation/ advancement within the organization. All of  these factors and determinants have led to overall employee dissatisfaction, resentments, disloyalty, and unenthusiastic with regards to the organization, department, and job. This paper will attempt to answer the following question: Can employee satisfaction, and productivity increase with the aid of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? The paper will delve deeper into particular philosophies and studies as conducted by Abraham Maslow, who suggest these goals to be obtainable through a hierarchy of human behavior and needs. Literature Review/Synopsis Personal Mastery and Authentic Leadership falseDhiman, Satinder.Organization Development Journal29. 2 (Summer 2011) This paper links personal mastery and authenticity to effective leadership on the premise that our leadership style is an extension of who we are. The findings of humanistic, existential, and positive psychology are explored to suggest a pathway to the art and science of human flourishing. The paper utilizes a synergistic exploratory research design to understand the relationship between personal mastery, authenticity, and leadership within the overarching concept of human flourishing. It builds on the work of Abraham Maslow, Victor Frankl, Peter Senge, Steven Covey, and Michael Ray in illuminating the concept of personal mastery. It also briefly reviews the recent work of positive psychologists such Martin Seligman, Ed Diener, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi to explore the emerging field of human flourishing by creating a conscious link between personal mastery, subjective well-being, and authentic happiness. Based on the findings, humanistic existential and positive psychology thinkers striking similarities are evident when it comes to the essentials of human flourishing. Maslow and Management: Universally Applicable or Idiosyncratic? falseJelavic, Matthew; Ogilvie, Kristie.The Canadian Manager34. 4 (Winter 2009) For scholars and practitioners of psychology, one of the most often-cited theories of human motivation is Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow’s categorization of these human needs into physiological, safety,  love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization are not often referenced within the context of the management science, where a discrete hard science process of a formula is apparent for the answer in how a manager motivates their workers. Rather, instances cited are tied to context that varies from each situation presented, which also can change over time and culture. Yet recent disciplines, such as Organizational Behavior and Leadership, have begun to take from sociology and psychology the dynamics to understand the person, teams, and organizational effects of these theories. The integration between motivational theories, such as Maslow and differences between cultures, such as Hofstede (1980a, 1980b), bears discussion necessary to be applicable in today’s global environment. The implications of societal culture and needs to the management education field are particularly important. The Influence of Maslow’s Humanistic Views on an Employee’s Motivation to Learn falseWilson, Ian; Madsen, Susan R. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship13. 2 (Apr 2008) Continual employee training and learning is critical to the ability of organizations to adapt to an ever changing national and international business environment. What motivates employees to learn? Abraham Maslow has had a significant impact on motivation theory, humanistic psychology, and subsequently, adult learning in the workplace. This paper discusses the development of Maslow’s humanistic views and traces their impact on past trends in business training as well as the implications for current challenges that managers face in motivating employee learning in the workplace. Press the Escape key to close Analysis Intrinsic motivation relates to people who work more for the love of their job than for the money they receive. People who have a job that they love make a living from something that they find inherently satisfying. People more commonly find intrinsic motivation in careers that involve high levels of skill and creativity, aspects that increase a person’s absorption in their work. Employers provide extrinsic motivation in the form of pay, benefits and other programs designed to appeal to employees. A worker  motivated by extrinsic factors may be there solely for the money and other benefits. This doesn’t mean that people in high-paying jobs lack intrinsic motivation, but that extrinsic motivation in terms of pay and benefits may be enough to keep them working at a job even if they don’t like it. The ideal situation for most employees is to find a job that features high levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Before we delve into what Intrinsic and Ext rinsic motivation is, it is thus vital to understand what motivation is and why is it important to motivate employees. Hence so, motivation could be defined as the driving force within individuals that encourages them to go ahead and perform the tasks, in order to achieve their intended needs and expectations. In other words, it is a set of reasons that eventually drags an individual to perform a particular task convincing that they could fulfill their needs and expectations, once the task is performed. Motivating employees is not an easy task, due to the fact that what motivates employees seems to change overtime. To say, different employees are motivated in different ways according to their needs. For example, one employee will be motivated to do his task by way of responsibility, while on the other hand another employee will be motivated by monetary rewards. However, it is possible to motivate an employee only if they want to be motivated. As a result, it is thus vital to identify the reason and create the atmosphere that encourages the non-performing employees to refresh and motivate themselves. In other words, it is thus important to try and find out what really motivates the employee. Trying to motivate an employee by wrong means could thus lead to a waste of money, time and so on, while paving way to de-motivate the employee more. Having said that, highly motivated employees are considered to be true assets for any organization; once motivated, they basically tend to be more productive, energetic, and very mush eager to take on additional responsibilities, and thus pleasant to be with and work with. However, on the other hand it should be said that there also tends to be non performing employees as well almost in every organization. Therefore, in such circumstances they basically have to look for deal with the obstacles by going and identifying the unmotivated employees and turning them around if the organizations are to be successful. In spite of that; when it comes to motivating employees this could be done intrinsically or extrinsically by using either intrinsic or extrinsic  rewards. When it comes to intrinsic motivation, this basically means that employees are motivated to do a particular task because of the pleasure or satisfaction that they get in performing the task itself. In other words, intrinsic motivation comes from within an individual rather than from extrinsic rewards such as monetary incentives etc. An employee who tends to be intrinsically motivated could be motivated by internal factors such as recognition, responsibility, growth and advancement. If an employee is to be motivated by intrinsic rewards, then this means that what the employee really wants is a job that interests him, a challenging work environment, and the responsibility to perform the task etc. in order to motivate him. For example, an intrinsically motivated person will perform a task given to him willingly, either because he might find the task challenging or else interesting and satisfied with completing it. To say, and not with the intention of getting other rewards. This is due to the fact the external rewards hardly motivate these employees. As a result, intrinsic motivation tends to be very much effective in the long run as the employees perform the tasks willingly becau se it interests them, rather than trying to escape from it once the job is done. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is when the employees are thus motivated by means of external rewards. External rewards basically consist of monetary incentives and grades etc. The employees are involved in performing a particular task is because of the external rewards that gives them satisfaction and pleasure, and not because they are interested in it. In other means, extrinsic motivation drives an employee to do things especially for tangible rewards or pressure, rather than for the fun of it. Extrinsic motivators can be either positive or negative. To say, it is thus possible to use positive motivators such as monetary rewards or negative such as threats or bribery to motivate them extrinsically. Extrinsic motivators basically focus the employees on rewards rather than actions. For example, employees will perform tasks though they are not quite interested in it, thus because of the rewards involved with it. To say, some people will not want to do the work willingly, but ra ther they are motivated to do so by external rewards. However in reality, extrinsic rewards do motivate employee’s only short term. This is because the extrinsically motivated employees will do their work only as long as they receive their rewards and thereafter will stop performing the tasks, once the rewards are  no longer there. Having looked at both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, it could be said that intrinsic motivation is far stronger than extrinsic motivation when it comes to motivate employees in the long run. This is because the intrinsically motivated employees will continue to perform better day after day as long they find the work interesting and satisfied. It doesn’t mean that extrinsic motivation should not be used, but this is not the ideal way to long motivate the employees. To say, extrinsically motivated employees will only find what they do to interesting as long as they receive the rewards which can either be positive or negative. And hence in order to motivate them to increase performance, then they will have to be given more rewards than before. If not, they will only be de-motivated. Not only that, but once the employees are given extrinsic rewards they will no longer be intrinsically motivated, but rather depend on rewards to keep them motivated thereafter. That is why it is vital to try and motivate employees intrinsically by trying to explain how it will help them to develop and encouraging them by offering more challenging work, giving responsibility and recognition for the work done etc. This will in turn lead to enhance performance by motivating them to meet the long term success. Through exploration of motivational characteristics, it is shown that people are either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Upon further research, two theories explain how intrinsic motivation can be increased or decreased by extrinsic, or external, motivation techniques. In Theory I, external motivators (incentives, praise, rewards, or punishment) increase intrinsic motivation. In Theory II, extrinsic motivators decrease intrinsic motivation. The latter of this paper will determine what impact extrinsic motivation techniques have on intrinsic motivation. It will then identify the most effective and least effective extrinsic motivation techniques, and explain how intrinsic motivation can be affected by this. Finally, the importance of this exploration will be explained by three research studies. Definitions Intrinsic motivation inspires individuals to participate in an activity because of the internal enjoyment that activity brings. People who are  intrinsically motivated have a need for achievement and aspire to be self-determined and competent, without any perceived external motivator (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little, 2004). Extrinsic motivation encourages individuals, who do not necessarily enjoy an activity, to perform well in order to receive some kind of reward or to avoid negative consequences (Aamodt, 2007). Autonomy, or self-determination, is experienced when an individual feels they have a choice in performing the activity and feels personally responsible for the outcome (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005; Aamodt, 2007). Theory I – External Motivators Increase Intrinsic Motivation There has been a great deal of controversy concerning the impact external motivation techniques have on intrinsic motivation. External motivation techniques have been proven to significantly increase extrinsic motivation, which results in increased efficiency and performance for organizations (Aamodt, 2007). More research is needed to prove that external incentives primarily decrease intrinsic motivation. Proponents of Theory I declare that rewarding individuals for meeting absolute or normative standards, or for exceeding a criterion, greatly increases intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005). Along with this theory, quality-dependent rewards (verbal praise or tangible rewards) increase intrinsic motivation because they meet an individual’s needs, wants, and desires (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little, 2004). Although quality-dependent rewards have a positive effect on intrinsic motivati on in this theory, achievement-based rewards (rewards that individuals receive for achieving or mastering a challenging criterion) also increases intrinsic motivation. Achievement-based rewards are broken down into two categories: controlling and informational. The controlling aspect of a reward will be discussed in the next section on how external motivators decrease intrinsic motivation. Basing achievement rewards for informational purposes, such as feedback, boosts an individual’s perception of competence and ability (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005). Feedback provides individuals with the results of their efforts thereby increasing intrinsic motivation (Aamodt, 2007). This makes a person feel good about what they have accomplished and inspires them to continue achieving the goal. Even though reward for achieving goals increases  motivation, goal theorists distinguish between two causes for that motivation: present value (engaging in an activity that has present value or enjoyment) and future value (engaging in an activity that will be valued or enjoyed in the future). In other words, being rewarded for achieving a goal increases intrinsic motivation if the individual was performing the activity for its immediate effects. Alternatively, if the individual is motivated to perform the activity with only future benefits in mind, the motivator is external and will not increase intrinsic motivation (Simons, Dewitte, & Lens, 2004). Theory II – External Motivators Decreases Intrinsic Motivation On one hand, quality-dependent, achievement-based, and goal-based external rewards affirm responsibility for increasing intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, research indicates that these external motivators are detrimental to an individual’s intrinsic motivation. Proponents of Theory II agree that external rewards or incentives substantially increase extrinsic motivation, but unlike Theory I advocates, they do not concur that external rewards increase an individual’s intrinsic motivation. Theory II promoters contend that all extrinsic rewards including informational (verbal rewards), controlling (tangible rewards), and contingent (engagement-based or performance-based) are destructive to intrinsic motivation (Xiang, Chen, & Bruene, 2005). University of Chicago’s professor of behavioral sciences, Uri Gneezy, made an interesting statement that summarized this viewpoint. He said, â€Å"Extrinsic motivation might change the perception of the activity and destroy the intrinsic motivation to perform it when no apparent reward apart from the activity itself is expected† (Rothman & Rothman, 2006). In compliance with Gneezy’s idea that external motivation techniques decrease enjoyment in an activity; task-contingent incentives (rewards to encourage participation in an activity, solving a problem, or completing a task) are also found to decrease self-determination. This decline in autonomy, along with the perception that the motivator is controlling; account for extensive decreases in intrinsic motivation. Use of certain incentives such as money or acknowledgement; are not what some individuals need, want, or desire. When these people receive rewards, it discourages their intrinsic motivation (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little,  2004). In addition to the negative effects that task-contingent rewards have on intrinsic motivation, the controlling aspect of achievement-based rewards (awarding those who meet performance standards) results in a similar outcome. External rewards for performing an activity or meeting a standard are viewed as controlling, according to intrinsically motivated people. This external motivation approach is perceived as more of a restraint on self-determination, or independence, than a reward for achieving the goal. Achievement-based rewards can also pressure an individual to perform up to an expected standard. All of these feelings contribute to a decrease in intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005). Studies In order to distinguish between the two theories on how external motivation techniques affect intrinsic motivation, a variety of controversial journal articles on the topic were examined. Analyzing a few of these studies will reveal why it is imperative to know and understand how external motivators can negatively or positively influence intrinsic motivation. In a study located in the 2006 American Journal of Transplantation, activists for establishing a market for organs have suggested that financial incentives would encourage more people to donate their organs. Challengers of this concept proposed that financial incentives would result in a decline in organ donors, and that the extrinsic incentives would devalue the moral and unselfish obligations of intrinsically motivated individuals (S.M. Rothman and D.J. Rothman, p. 2). An article written by Nancy Folbre, sited in the 2006 Politics and Society Journal, uncovered the controversial issue of low-paid care givers and social service workers. Folbre found that external incentives would increase intrinsic motivation in care givers and social service workers. She also affirmed that the levels of intrinsic motivation and moral commitment in care givers and social service workers outweigh the supply of effort that a better wage would bring in. Her thoughts about the pay scale and treatment for care givers and social service workers were summarized by â€Å"they are being taken for granted,† and that â€Å"strong intrinsic motivation can ‘burn-out’ workers.† Opponents to Folbre’s opinion, such as Anthony Heyes in his article, â€Å"Why is a Badly Paid Nurse a Good Nurse?† wrote that a â€Å"good† nurse was willing to accept a lower wage. Heyes also challenged that raising nurses’ salaries would result in reduced intrinsic  motivation and decreased service quality. According to Folbre’s adversaries, â€Å"low pay helps screen out workers who lack the requisite motivation† (Folbre, 7 & 12). A study found in the 2004 School Psychology Review researched the effects of using extrinsic motivation techniques to maintain appropriate academic output and behavior in schools. Some researchers believed that instructors attempted to â€Å"bribe† students with external motivators to encourage them to perform and act a certain way in school. These theorists felt that bribing intrinsically motivated students, who do their best for their own fulfillment, decreased the students’ intrinsic motivation. In contrast, this study revealed that external motivation was not detrimental to students’ intrinsic motivation. In fact, the use of praise and rewards for doing well increased the students’ self-determination and encouraged them to continue to perform well. The only way tangible rewards have decreased intrinsic motivation, according to this article, was when they were not delivered immediately after a student’s behavior (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Li ttle, 346 & 359). Summary/Conclusion To summarize this research, external motivation techniques have been found to both increase and decrease intrinsic motivation. To keep a healthy balance in an organization, the motivation techniques considered must be carefully selected so that extrinsically motivated individuals, as well as those who are intrinsically motivated, can be satisfied. From these articles, the most effective external motivators include quality-dependent rewards, informational achievement-based rewards, and goal-based rewards. External motivation techniques to avoid include task-contingent incentives and controlling achievement-based rewards. In conclusion, by examining the above referenced journal articles to find the effects extrinsic motivators have on intrinsic motivation, this research revealed that there are approximately the same number of theorists on both sides of the spectrum. There are just as many researchers who suggest external motivation techniques negatively affect intrinsic motivation as there are who imply external incentives positively affect intrinsic motivation. The debate over whether external motivation techniques either have a positive or a negative effect on intrinsic motivation continues. References Aamodt, M.G. (2007). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: An Applied Approach (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth Corporation. Akin-Little, A.K.; Eckert, T.L.; Lovett, B.J.; & Little, S.G. (2004). Extrinsic Reinforcement in the Classroom: Bribery or Best Practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 345-348. Cameron, J.; Pierce, W.D.; Banko, K.M.; & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-Based Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: A Test of Cognitive Mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 642-643. Dhiman, S. (2011). Personal mastery and authentic leadership. Organization Development Journal, 29(2), 69-83. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/docview/899227431?accountid=6579 Folbre, N. (2006). Demanding Quality: Worker/Consumer Coalitions and â€Å"High Road† Strategies in the Care Sector. Politics & Society, 34 (1), 7 & 12 Hainsworth, K. (2002, Jun 22). Rise: Still striving for recognition and achievement? Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The Guardian, pp. 4-RISE.4. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/docview/245833355?accountid=6579 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Sansone, C. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the search for optimal motivation and performance. San Diego: Academic Press. Jelavic, M., & Ogilvie, K. (2009). Maslow and management: Universally applicable or idiosyncratic? The Canadian Manager, 34(4), 16-17. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/docvie w/846781461?accountid=6579 Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Press. Maslow, A., Stephens, D., & Heil, G. (1998). Maslow on management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Parallon workforce management solutions. (2011, January 02). Retrieved from http://www.parallon.net/workforce_services.html Rothman, S.M. & Rothman, D.J. (2006). The Hidden Cost of Organ Sale. American Journal of Transplantation, 6(7), 2 Simons, J.; Dewitte, S.; & Lens, W. (2004). The Role of Different Types of Instrumentality in Motivation, Study Strategies, and Performance: Know Why You Learn, So You’ll Know What You Learn! British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 345-346. Stephens, D. (2000). The Maslow Business Reader. New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The Influence of Maslow’s Humanistic Views on an Employee’s Motivation to Learn falseWilson, Ian; Madsen, Susan R. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship13. 2 (Apr 2008): 46-62.Press the Escape key to close Wilson, I., & Susan, R. M. (2008). The influence of Maslow’s humanistic views on an employee’s motivation to learn. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 46-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/docview/203897252?accountid=6579 Xiang, P.; Chen, Ang.; & Bruene, A. (2005). Interactive Impact of Intrinsic Motivators and Extrinsic Rewards on Behavior and Motivation Outcomes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 24, 180.

Cost Centres, Profit Centres, Investment Centres Essay

The increasing complexity of today’s business environment makes it virtually impossible for most firms to be controlled centrally. Decentralisation is a necessary response to this increasing complexity and involves the delegation of decision-making responsibility by senior management to sub-ordinates. The structure is such that decision making is dispersed to various units within the organisation, with managers at various levels making key decisions relating to their centre of responsibility. These centres of organisational activity are known as responsibility centres and may be defined ‘as a unit of a firm where an individual manager is held responsible for the unit’s performance.’1 The performance of each centre and its manager is measured and controlled through a system of responsibility accounting which is based on the principles of locating responsibility and tracing costs/revenue/investments etc. to the individual managers who are primarily responsible. The division of the firm into separately identifiable units of responsibility allows for more accurate measurement of managerial performance because local information is more thorough. Overall, in order to obtain an accurate measurement of managerial performance, measures should be based on elements which the manager can control or significantly influence. There are three main types of responsibility centre. A cost centre is the lowest level of responsibility, and performance is measured in terms of the costs incurred by it. Cost centres do not generate revenue and therefore have no profit objectives, which differentiates it from profit and investment centres. Managers of cost centres are accountable only for controllable costs and are not responsible for level of activity or long-term investment decisions. Managerial performance is measured by efficiency of operations in terms of the quantity of inputs used in producing a given output. The basis of this type of measurement lies in comparing actual inputs to budgeted controllable costs or some predetermined level that represents efficient utilisation. Cost control and efficiency of operations are the main elements of this type of unit. However, costs in general can be difficult to measure, trace and allocate and it can be difficult to differentiate between controllable and uncontrollable costs. This poses a major drawback for the evaluation of cost centres and their management, since cost is its main element of measurement. The focus being mainly on costs, makes this centre some-what weak in terms of evaluation and measurement of managerial performance. Cost centres can be split into two different types; standard cost centres and discretionary cost centres. In the former, measurement is exercised by comparing standard cost with actual cost. Variances would be indicative of the efficiency of the centre and therefore its managers’ performance. Discretionary cost centres are centres where output cannot be measured in financial terms, for example advertising and publicity, R&D etc. ‘Control normally takes the form of ensuring that actual expenditure adheres to budgeted expenditure for each expense category.’2 However, a major problem with this type of responsibility centre is the measurement of the effectiveness of expenditure and the determination of the efficiency of the centre itself and its management. A profit centre offers an additional element to the measurement process in that both inputs and outputs are measured in monetary terms. The manager of a profit centre has increased autonomy as s/he is responsible for revenue as well as costs; hence it is easier to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of managerial performance in financial terms. ‘In this situation, managers are normally free to set selling prices, choose which markets to sell in, make product-mix and output decisions and select suppliers.’3 A profit centre differs form a cost centre in that its main objective is to maximise profit and the performance of the manager is measured in terms of profit made. Top executives allocate assets to a profit centre, and the manager is responsible for using these assets to make a profit. Each profit centre has a profit target and has the authority to adopt such policies that are necessary to achieve these targets. Profit centre managers are evaluated by comparing actual profit to targeted profit. Profit analysis using profitability ratios or segmented income statements are used as a basis for evaluating managerial performance. The major issue with profit statements is the difficulty in deciding what is controllable or traceable, and in order to assess the managers’ performance rather than the economic performance of the unit, measures must be based on controllable profit only. Another difficulty arises in allocating revenue and costs to profit centres, as it is unlikely that the profit centre is completely independent. This has prompted many firms to use multiple performance measures such as a balanced scorecard, which measures non-financial as well as financial elements of the unit. The measurement of profit is also compounded by the use of transfer prices and agreeing on its ‘fairness’. Transfer prices are allocated to goods transferred from one unit to another within a firm. The implication of transfer prices is that for the selling unit it will be a source of revenue and for the receiving unit it is an element of cost, and as a result each division may act in its own interests. Transfer pricing therefore has a significant bearing when calculating revenues, costs and profits of responsibility centres. The choice of transfer pricing method is important because it affects goal congruence as well as performance measurement. However, it is difficult to determine the correct transfer price, as there are a wide variety of methods available, varying from negotiation to approaches based on the market or based on cost. The investment centre manager has increased responsibility in comparison to the cost and profit centre managers and as a result there are further options for managerial performance measurement by top management. The investment centre manager has responsibility for revenue and costs, and also has the authority to make capital investment decisions. This type of unit represents the highest level of managerial autonomy. An investment centre differs from a profit centre in that investment centre management is evaluated on the basis of the rate of return earned on the assets employed or the residual income earned, while profit centre management is evaluated on the basis of excess revenue over expenses for the period. The manager in charge has the objective of profitability, depending not only on sales but also on profitability of the capital used. Overall, investment centres offer the broadest basis for measurement in the sense that managerial performance is measured not only in terms of profits, but also in terms of assets employed to generate those profits. Performance can be measured using a variety of tools, and this ensures that the drawbacks of one method are overcome by the merits of another. This in turn leads to more accurate results and is one of the main reasons why investment centres are so popular as a means of managerial performance measurement in large companies. Both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the manager can be assessed by reference to the accounting data available. Investment centres offer many qualities required for good managerial performance measurement. For example, they provide incentives to the unit manager, they can recognise long-term objectives as well as short-term objectives and the increased responsibility means there are more controllable factors for use in performance measurement calculations. Return on investment is a measurement approach in common use in investment centres. This method has the advantage of being simple and easy to calculate. ‘ROI expresses divisional profit as a percentage of the assets employed in the division.’4 It has the further advantage of motivating managers to achieve the best return on investments in order to achieve the associated rewards. ROI provides a return measure that controls the size and is comparable to other measures. It can be used as a common denominator for comparing the returns of similar businesses, such as other divisions within the group or outside competition. It is widely used and most managers understand what the measure reflects. However, some complications arise in the calculation of this method. For example, difficulties regarding the calculation of profit, some of which are described above. Profit can be defined in a number of ways and this enables the figure to be manipulated. In the case of the figure for investments, the question arises whether this should be total assets (gross or depreciated), total operating assets or net total assets. The result would differ in each case, but if consistency is maintained throughout the organisation, decisions would remain unaffected. Another difficulty that may arise in relation to this method is that managers may focus on self-interests rather than the overall goal of the organisation and some profitable opportunities may be ignored because s/he fears potential dilution of existing successful endeavours. Furthermore, ROI does not adequately recognise risk. A manager who generates a large ROI result may be investing in riskier assets which may not be consistent with organisational goals. Use of ROI as a managerial performance measure can lead to under or over investment in assets or incorrect asset disposal decisions, in order to achieve the result the manager requires to accomplish his reward. To overcome some of the above difficulties, many firms use residual income to evaluate managerial performance. This method seeks to motivate managers to invest where the expected returns exceed the cost of capital. For the purpose of managerial performance measurement, ‘it compares the controllable contribution of an investment with the targeted rate of return.’5 There is a greater possibility that managers will be encouraged to act in the best interests of the company. Another advantage of this method is that it is more flexible because different cost of capital rates can be applied for different levels or risk. Though ROI and RI operate on a similar basis, RI proves better in certain circumstances. For example, if ROI is chosen as the measuring technique, managers may be reluctant to make additional investments in fixed assets as it may bring down the ROI for their centre. RI calculation results would be more accurate in these situations. However, residual income does not overcome the problem of determining the value of assets or the figure to be used for profit. If RI is used in a short-term perspective, it can over-emphasise short-term performance at the expense of long-term performance. Investment projects with positive net present values can show poor ROI and RI results in early years, leading to rejection of projects by managers. Residual income also experiences problems in comparing managerial performance in divisions of different sizes. The manager of the larger division will generally show a higher RI because of the size of the division rather then superior managerial performance. Another drawback for this method is that it requires an estimate of the cost of capital, a figure which can be difficult to calculate. Economic value added is an extension of the residual income measurement. It measures surplus value created by total investments which include funds provided by banks, shareholders etc. Its key element is the emphasis on after-tax operating profit and the actual annual cost of capital. The latter aspect differentiates it from the RI measure, which uses the minimum expected rate of return. EVA is a further step towards encouraging centre managers to concentrate on the overall goal of the organisation rather than their own self interests, hence reducing dysfunctional behaviour. The above measures are financial measures. As stated previously, it is important also to study non-financial aspects, such as customer satisfaction, quality, internal processes, growth etc. in order to get a more complete picture when measuring managerial performance. The above measures also focus on performance within the investment centre and do not consider the performance relative to overall company objectives. In conclusion, it can be stated that in order to assess managerial performance as opposed to the economic performance of the division, it is vital to make a distinction between the controllable and uncontrollable elements used in the chosen calculations. Each measurement technique is not without limitations, but these difficulties can be overcome by using a wide variety of measurement tools and striking the right balance between them. Of the three types of responsibility centre, an investment centre can be considered to yield better results, as it allows for the broadest basis for measurement, making it widely popular as a means of managerial performance measurement. 1 C. Drury, Management and Cost Accounting, 6th Ed. P. 653 2 C. Drury, Management and Cost Accounting, 6th Ed. P. 654 3 C. Drury, Management and Cost Accounting, 6th Ed. P. 654/655 4 C. Drury, Management and Cost Accounting, 6th Ed. P. 845 5 IPA Manual, Management Accounting, P 239

Animal Characteristics Used in A Doll’s House

Animal Characteristics Used in A Dolls House An Analysis of the Significance of Animal Characteristics Used in A Doll’s House Reflective Statement Discussion of A Doll’s House in class reach me deeply and implored new perspectives on traditional gender roles in different cultures such as Europe in the late 1800s. I relate to Henrik Ibsen’s humanist work as opposed to A Doll’s House being completely feminist. To say A Doll’s House is a feminist work would be redundant. Feminism is the fight for the equality of the sexes and Ibsen’s A Doll’s House explores this very theme. Being human is not confined to just being male or female but having characteristics that define an individual. Christine’s character is a prime example of escapism in the play and the other works we’ve studied have generally the same motif. In each culture, In this paper, an analysis will be done on Ibsen’s use of animal characteristics. Throughout the play, the characters Torval d and Nora call to each other and themselves various animals like â€Å"Lark† and â€Å"Squirrel†. On occasion, Ibsen’s A Doll’s House has been referred to as a feminist work and although themes of feminism are present, the overall effect Ibsen makes is a humanist perspective of the characters lives. The significance of animal characteristics shows a development in Nora’s character and introduces the type of man Torvald is. Ibsen also uses animal characteristics to reveal the deeper relationship between Nora and Torvald. Verbal irony is conveyed through the use of animal characteristics. The play opens with Nora coming upon the stage laden with Christmas gifts for the children, a horse and sword, trumpets and dolls and cradles. Although the items are tiny things, inexpensive and useless it conveys how much love Nora has. She carries also a little bag of macaroons that she hides when Torvald questions her about. The initial thought of Nora is she sp ends exuberant amounts of money and is rightfully called a spendthrift by Torvald. Nora’s character can be interpreted as charming and dishonest, always flitting, never resting, light-hearted, inconsequent airhead. The entrance of Christine’s character reveals Nora’s dark secret and her character no longer seems transparent. † Free. To be free, absolutely free. To spend time playing with the children. To have a clean, beautiful house, the way Torvald likes it.† Nora tells Christine that she will be â€Å"free† after she has paid off her debt to Krogstad. her anticipated freedom symbolizes her need to be independent of Torvald. Within that, Nora highlights the factors that constrain her. Although she claims that freedom will give her time to be a mother and a traditional wife that maintains a beautiful home as her husband likes it, she leaves her children and Torvald at the end of the play. One main theme of the play is that true freedom cannot be found in a traditional domestic lifestyle. Nora’s character develops intricately and her understanding of the word â€Å"free† is changes clearly. Nora becomes aware of the fact that she must change her life to find true freedom, and Nora recognizes that freedom includes independence from societal constraints and her ability to examine in depth her own personality, goals, and beliefs.The characteristics of a lark signify that Torvald believes that Nora is small compared to the his perspective. † That is like a woman!†¦you know what I think about that. No debt, no borrowing.† (Ibsen p. 2) To explore the relationship between Nora and all the other characters one must see that not only did Torvald treat women like children, he also treats lesser men in the workplace as expendable and replaceable. â€Å"But instead of Krogstad, you could dismiss some other clerk.†. He exerts his dominance over others, running over the thoughts and feelings of su rrounding humans. It’s a sweet little bird, but it gets through a terrible amount of money. You wouldn’t believe how much it costs a man when he’s got a little song-bird like you!† Nora express the conclusion she draws from the deep reality of their marriage her view of Torvald’s character at the end of Act Three. â€Å"I have existed merely to perform tricks for you, Torvald. But you wanted it like that. You and father have committed a great sin against me. It is your fault that I have made nothing of my life. Our home has been nothing but a playroom. I have been your doll-wife, just as at home I was papa’s doll-child; and here the children have been my dolls. I thought it great fun when you played with me, just as they thought it great fun when I played with them. That is what our marriage has been, Torvald.† She realizes her life has been a performance and she has acted the part of the happy, child-like wife for Torvald and for her father. Nora sees that her father and Torvald pressured her to behave a certain way and recognizes it to be â€Å"great wrong† that stifled her development as an adult and as a human being. She has made â€Å"nothing† of her life because she has existed only to please men. Following this realization, Nora leaves Torvald in order to make something of her life and becomes independent of other people. Nora has an underlining care for her husband because she reacts abruptly when Nils tries to blackmail her. She understands how important appearance is for Helmer but she resents the way he’s been treating her. â€Å"How painful and humiliating it would be for Torvald to know that he owed me anything! It would upset our mutual relations altogether.† (Ibsen p.9) â€Å"You don’t talk or think like the man I could bind myself to. When your first panic was over — not about what threatened me, but about what might happen to you — and when there was no more danger, then, as far as you were concerned, it was just as if nothing had happened at all. I was simply your little songbird, your doll, and from now on you would handle it more gently than ever because it was so delicate and fragile. At that moment, Torvald, I realized that for eight years I’d been living her with a strange man and that I’d borne him three children. Oh, I can’t bear to think of it — I could tear myself to little pieces!† Bibliography A Doll’s House Ibsen, Henrik. Global Classics, 1879.

Business Plan for Wal-Mart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Business Plan for Wal-Mart - Essay Example There are another 1309 stores in 10 other countries. These prices are obtained through the massive buying power of the firm and tight contracts with the suppliers, by the relatively low average wages paid to employees, by the streamlined business model and by continual fine -tuning of strategy. This attracts customers: Wal-Mart commands about 30 per cent of the US market for household staples such as toothpaste and sells 15 - 20 per cent of all CDs, Video and DVD. It is now becoming a force in book retailing as well. The firm was started by Sam Walton, who focused on locating large stores in rural areas while rivals built in cities and suburbs. The typical new Wal-Mart I now a 'Supercenter' that sells groceries and general merchandise in a store with an area of about four football fields. Wal-Mart has about 1400 of these supercenters in the United States. Wal-Mart has a great impact on suppliers and consumers. Due to the huge demand of Wal-Mart stores, suppliers are bound to stick to it only. Consumers get all the household items at a relatively low prices. To get the goals of any organization in certain intensity there are some issues involved. These issues, consists of necessary business, technology and human factors, are called Critical Success Factors. Firstly, a company has to focus on its business environments and secondly, it must be examined that what kind of risks have to face during the implementation cycle of business strategy (Aram, 1976), because the CSF is very much reliant on business's position. Several other CSF can be identified for specific circumstances. It is necessary that the basic features of the business like cost, quality of the product, services will not be affected negatively after entering into the marketplace Company must maintain a solid and comprehensive strategy of business The business of the company must have a complete support of its top management The infrastructure of the business must be complete and comprehensive The employees of the company are well trained Company's pricing policy not affected by its business The expectations of the customers must be taken care of Personal and 1-1 attention to all customers Strategic Planning: The strategic choice really consists of answering questions about competition - that is how the firm will compete to achieve its mission and goals (Daft, 1989). While these decisions are important, strategic decision makers often pay less attention to the 'with what will we compete' issue, resulting in poor strategic decisions (Galbraith & Kazanjian, 1986). For example, Pepsico in the 1980s acquired the fast-food chain of Kentucky Fried Chicken, Taco Bell and Pizza Hut in an effort to increase its customer base. However, it failed to recognize adequately the differences between its existing workforce and that of the fast-food industry as well as its ability to manage such a workforce. One recent study in the United States of 115 strategic business units within Fortune 500 corporations found that between forty nine and sixty nine percent of the companies had some link between Human Resource Management and the strategic planning process (Fisher & Dowling, 1999) however, the level of li nkage varies and it is important to understand the different

American history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

American history - Essay Example The Progressive Era witnessed the appearance of reformers known by the name progressives whose objective was to knock down the devils of inequalities in the nation (Roosevelt). With the target of highlighting democratic principles and social justice, the progressives made efforts to lay the pillar for a â€Å"new† America with liberty, equality and power (Roosevelt). These progressives emerging from a tradition of middle-class elites possessed a great sense of social responsibility for the underprivileged class (Roosevelt). In the view of Eleanor Roosevelt who belonged to this social class, â€Å"In that society you were kind to the poor, you did not neglect your philanthropic duties, you assisted the hospitals and did something for the needy.† (Roosevelt). The demand put forward by the progressives started gaining recognition from farmers to politicians as it went on expanding from social service to journalism (Roosevelt). Such was the outcome of the endeavors that even president, Theodore Roosevelt mentioned: â€Å"No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down as to the way in which such work [reform] must be done; but most certainly every man, whatever his position, should strive to do it in some way and to some degree.† (Roosevelt). This was supported with Roosevelt’s resolution to discourage the laissez-faire approach and to hold up labor of 1902’s Anthracite Coal Strike settlement (Roosevelt). In the Progressive Era, ladies such as Jane Addams and Lillian Wald shouldered the social duties of updating the immigrant sections and steering them towards the right ways of life and moral values (Roosevelt). This had some influence on the woman and child labor laws, welfare benefits and factory inspection legislation (Roosevelt). However, the exertions of these female reformers simply added to the bosses’ recognition (Roosevelt). Another group of progressives were â€Å"muckraking† journalists like Jacob Riis, whose work How

Human Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Human Sexuality - Essay Example The choice of the method of contraception is a personal decision based on individual preferences for convenience and comfort, medical histories and the risks and benefits and side effects associated with each method. This calls for the personal involvement of the sexually active males and females to take the appropriate decisions keeping in mind the above stated factors. Further considerations become imperative when the contraception methods are implemented or long term. The issues like whether a couple intends to have children in future are of prime importance before opting for any specific method. Almost all the birth control methods are reversible. With the discontinued usage of the birth control technique men and women will be fertile to their normalcy and will still be able to reproduce. However in the case of surgical methods it becomes comparatively difficult to reverse the situation back to normalcy; which means that once the surgery is carried out, there are less chances for that male or female to reproduce. It is generally believed that no birth control method is 100 percent effective in the prevention of pregnancy; however it is found that some methods are found more effective then the rest. The pregnancy rates for birth control methods are known as failure rates and are generally expressed in percentage that represents the number of pregnancies expected in a group of 100 fertile women using the sole method for a period of one year. Researchers use two basic types of pregnancy rates while describing the effectiveness of a birth control method. Method effectiveness, or perfect use, is the chance of becoming pregnant when a particular method is used correctly and consistently with each act of sexual intercourse.

Civil war in Africa Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Civil war in Africa - Research Paper Example Warlords and government can no longer rely on an ideological basis for civil war financing since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Natural resources are asserts that sustain activities of both rebel movements and justice movements set to counter them (Collier & Hoeffler, 2000). Congo has diverse and abundant minerals that include gold and copper. The locals do not benefit from these minerals, as those that benefit have not done any useful investment in the country. Foreigners have persistently found local collaborators to share the massive possessions of the continent. Civil war broke as movements purported to protect the masses from the monopoly of the rulers and their overseas business allies (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2004). Interference from outside countries, like USA and Soviet Union has also led to civil wars in the African continent; the Cold War is a significant component in aggravation of civil war in Africa. Each power militarized different African states and took part in de stabilizing their government’s political legitimacy. Governments in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Zaire depended on Cold War finance sustain their military dominance. This competition for supremacy motivated a scramble for power among different sponsored movements in different African states (Cramer, 2006; Ndikumana & Emizet, 2005). ... The powers went as far as offering arms and training to groups to provide them and edge in waging war over their rivals. A large number of African civil war protagonists received military training from countries like Russia, Israel, USA, and the Soviet Union (Kinzer, 2008) Extend of Western countries’ contribution to civil wars can be as far as assassination of some of the African leaders. There are accusation against western countries for sanctioning assassinations of African political leaders such as Eduardo Mondlane and Patrice Lumumba, Dag Hammarskjold and Samora Marcel (Akaki, 2008; De Witt, 2001). This assassination has contributed to civil wars in Africa as various political groups blame each other for the death of these leaders. The power vacuum in place leads to scramble for the vacant leadership position. High prevalence of civil wars in Africa is accredited to the ethnic variety of its people. This inference seems self-evident to many, given that. Rebel movements in Africa are most of the times ethnically oriented. Divisions in terms of ethnic orientation and the hatred that comes with it are thus among the cause of violent conflict in African continent (Elbadawi & Sambanis, 2000). Settlement former slaves in Liberia can also be to blame for of civil unrest in the country. The freed slaves prevented those from indigenous community from taking up political leadership positions; moreover, thefreed slaves thought of themselves as a progressive group. They saw indigenous Africans as heathens and savages. Liberians from America, adopted a racist thinking they experienced in the west at the time, which tagged indigenous Africans as primitive people. Such attitudes led to frequent friction among the groups, which

DEAF COURSE QUESTIONS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

DEAF COURSE QUESTIONS - Coursework Example (True) 7) 50% of children are born to hearing parents, 50% to deaf parents. (False) 8) Deaf people are less intelligent because the lack of speech affects thinking. (False) 9) Amy Rowley, who requested an interpreter for her education, was a Deaf student whose case was the first Supreme Court decision on IDEA. (True) 10) Deaf mothers usually use more touch and visual contacts with their babies . (True) Alexander Graham Bell: b) had a Deaf wife and mother but never supported American Sign language. American Sign Language: b) is a natural means of communication for Deaf people that has its own unique grammar independent from English. Who was/is a famous Deaf individual? c) Marlee Matlin Educators and other professionals decided at the Milan congress in 1880: b) Sign language will be prohibited among all Deaf people and in all schools around the world. Martha’s Vineyard was: c) an island where everyone spoke Sign language in the 19th century due to the large number of hereditary deaf people 1. Do Deaf people have their own culture? If yes, describe the various expression of Deaf culture. If not, explain why not? Deaf people do have a culture which is called ‘Deaf Culture’. ... Deaf people also consider sign as their first language, which in America is American Sign Language (ASL). Deaf people also have their own folklore which they tell each other in ASL. Deaf people are usually very open and blunt. In deaf culture, people greet each other with a hug. Deaf communities also have their own â€Å"Deaf Olympics† and deaf people also participate in performing arts and activities such beauty pageant as well as social interactions for Deaf people. 2. What is the difference between American Sign language, Signed Exact English and cued speech? Describe the similarities and differences in grammar, creating signs (words), and lexicon. American Sign Language (ASL) is the most commonly used sign language in United States. It grammar is totally unique from that of English. It lacks the use of tense and number as well as articles that are commonly used in English, and has its own elaborate grammatical features that are not present in English. On the other hand, th e Signed Exact Language (SEE) is an artificial system that attempts to visually represent English languages through codes. Though based on ASL, not only it modifies the ASL hand shapes in order to represent English more accurately, it also contains new signs for representing morphemes which may be dropped by the signer. Cued Language (CL) is neither and sign language, nor a coded system for English. Rather, it acts as a way of communicating in English using signs by making sounds visible to the hearing impaired. CL is not restricted to English language only and has been adapted to 25 languages and dialects. 3. Various authors described language, social, and personal Deaf identities. McKee added that Deaf people identify with the Deaf world. What are the

MicroL4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

MicroL4 - Essay Example Higher education has proved to be beneficial in voting matters also. Education is an asset. It has provided benefits like self awareness, ability to think wisely and critically, having the ability to meet different people, which are less tangible and will help a child to grow up being a better individual. However, there are certain costs that have to be incurred for going to college. The opportunity costs of going to college include several components. First, the opportunity cost of one going to college includes the money that he or she would have earned instead of attending classes. It also includes the amount of wages that were foregone by not doing work and just attending college. In opting for going to college, one has also lost the opportunity to build up a career and the associated income that could be earned instead of not going to college. The greatest opportunity cost of going to college is the wage income that the individual has to forgone for attending classes. 2. The marg in is considered to be a very significant concept in the area of business and economics. In economics the concept of margin is related to a wide range of topics including utility, revenue, costs, profit, product, etc. We are quite familiar with the terms of marginal utility, marginal revenue, marginal costs, marginal profit, marginal product and so on. The term margin mainly stands for the difference in the value of a variable when one additional unit of some other variable is used. For example, marginal utility of a product refers to the increase or decrease in total utility of an individual due to one unit increase in the consumption of the product. The concept of margin is very essential in economic decision making. The level of p of goods, the level of production of goods, etc are always determined by considering marginal requirement. For example, a firm is a profit maximizer in the sense it will always produce a commodity in such a way that its profit is maximized. In a perfect ly competitive market, the firm will maximize its profit when marginal costs will b equal to its marginal revenue. The firm will continue to increase its production until marginal revenue becomes equal to its marginal cost. The point of equality is considered to be the equilibrium point of the firm. Thus the concept of margin is very important in economic decision making. Without the consideration of margin requirement it is not possible to conduct economic activities in optimum ways. However, it is not always necessary that all kinds of economic decisions are taken using the marginal concept only. For example, in a perfectly competitive market the break even point of a firm is not determined by any marginal concept. The break even point is relevant in short run production. This point mainly refers to the point of shutting down of production. A firm in a perfectly competitive market will shut down or stop production in short run when its average variable costs become greater than it s average revenue, i.e. its average revenue even fail to cover the firm’s average variable costs. Thus the concept of average is important in taking shut down decision. 3. There has been a huge debate over the tax cut policy by bush administration in 2001 and 2003. Bush tax cuts mainly refer to two important tax policies created and implemented during the Presidential era of George W. Bush. Through these policies, the Bush administration mainly lowered tax rates in the United States. These tax policies effectively lowered marginal tax rates for almost all

Mussolinis successful rise to power by 1922 Essay Example for Free

Mussolinis successful rise to power by 1922 Essay Analyze the claim that Mussolinis successful rise to power by 1922 was largely a consequence of the impact of the First World War. Without a doubt, the role of the First World War in Mussolinis spectacular rise to power between 1920 and 1922 was considerable, for it was surely a strong catalyst for change and Italys renewal, meaning it gave way to many problematic economical and political aspects, which in turn gave Mussolini the chance to strike at the precise moment in order to have a direct affect on people and ergo win their support. These were aspects such as the damage of the foundations of Liberal Italy, which had as a consequence the rise of frustration within nationalists and the decrease in wages and increase in the level of unemployment in the country, all of which were obviously disastrous. Therefore, Italian people started to doubt their government, which seemed weak, and initiated a search for a new, stronger leadership which would bring to cease the social unrest and economic problems; to this, Fascism seemed like the perfect alternative and solution. Nevertheless, the impact of the First World War was just to certain extent the reason for Mussolinis rise to power, for there were many other factors affecting the path of Italy into a Fascist dictatorship. These other factors were the already mentioned weak liberal regime, nationalist dissatisfaction and social and economic unrest, as well as Mussolinis opportunism, the Fascists actions and the Kings (Victor Emmanuel) doings. Dealing first with the impact of the war and the numerous consequences it had, it is necessary to point out that it was the war that brought the distress among soldiers and their families, who consequently turned to Fascism as a comfort, which implicates that the war provided a great number of employers for Fascism who were from the elite troops of the Italian army, (or Arditi); this gave Mussolinis movement a great deal of prestige. The war also brought discontent within the Italian political system; this had an effect on million of Italians who started believing that the time of liberalism was finally over; a fact which greatly accelerated the process of the formation of new political parties, such as the Socialist party, and the Popolari (formed by catholic radicals). The formation of these new parties meant a heavy burden for the Liberal government, because with a new opposition and challenge their regime was in danger, nevertheless the Liberal State found itself in a high level of vulnerability seeing that it was incapable of mobilizing the economy with the purpose of eliminating the countrys economic troubles, and finding a way around its limited economic resources; this only provided the masses with new restlessness concerning their government, and ergo made them consider what seemed a more decisive power: Fascism, which seemed to have the key property to put an end to the domestic situation, which after the war was only deteriorating further; causing lifestyles to worsen for the majority of the Italian population, which was the main reason for the sense of social breakdown that was spreading throughout the country. To this, Giolitti could either see no solution, or simply did nothing to stop it, for the Liberal regime could not get rid of the social unrest which gave way to strikes of over 40000 workers. On the other hand, communism seemed to be growing in the form of a political power: the Socialist party, which was in great scale believed to be an enormous threat and therefore any show of strength from this party was greatly feared for it was thought that it might bring revolution. This encouraged most of the social classes to believe in Fascism as it posed as the savoir to this menace and as the defender of law and order. The adoption of this heroic image by the fascists could also be regarded as a degree of opportunism from Mussolinis character, for the tension that was created by the fear of Socialism of the industrialists (who feared revolution was near), small land owners (who were deeply hit by inflation and therefore felt that their government was a weak one), Industrial workers (who were threatened by the seizure of their jobs by the socialist forces) and rentiers created the perfect atmosphere for Mussolini to put into practice his skills and tactics. Mussolini successfully abused the fears of a Socialist takeover from these classes to enable them to consider Fascism not only as an alternative, but as a perfect answer to the request of a powerful and decisive government. Mussolini, to great extent, persuaded people to believe the above by the use of his extraordinary speaking skills, to which he integrated the ideas of bringing order, stability, commitment, discipline and a strong government to Italy; (which were the exact properties of a government that the Italian masses were seeking at the moment), as well as convincing the middle classes that liberalism was finished, (as already mentioned). Moreover, his astuteness served him in convincing people that they (fascists) were violent because it [was] necessary to be so (a direct line from a speech he makes after the murder of a socialist leader), meaning that he was doing what was necessary to complete the correction of Italy. While he convinced the masses that the atrocities committed by fascists were perfectly reasonable by saying that blood alone moves the wheels of history, he was simultaneously using this violent authority to secure political power for his own later use; this meant that the black-shirted actions squads were taking law into their own hands, and by doing so, they were eliminating all those who dared to oppose this fascist movement. To some degree, this use of intimidation was very effective, for it meant that fascism would gain support by force which was obviously directed by fear within the supporters. An example of this successful intimidation was the violent general elections where Fascism gained a considerable amount of seats due to the brutality used to achieve control. But although violence was greatly used, and regardless of the fact that it put Mussolini in position to threaten the state, Mussolini was aware of all the possible consequences that his actions could bring, such as provoking the conservatives to make the authorities crush the fascists if their use of violence went too far; this measure of consciousness made him a great politician. Furthermore, in contrast to the slow Liberal reaction, Fascists were fast to accept their role as the alternative to Socialism and dealt with the Social General Strike with great speed; and by putting a stop to the socialist threat they won many votes in the parliament and had an effective result in the support of Italians; on the other hand, the lack of reaction from the Liberals only showed their incompetence to restore law, order and public confidence in their regime; which in turn continued encouraging the urban educated classes to keep thinking that they were in the path towards a civil war, meaning that the sense of crisis in the circumstances had not yet ceased to exist. In addition, Mussolini exploited to the full the situation of the General Strike and thought of it as the opportune moment to oppose the communist threat and hence use the socialists failure to appeal to the people as a man whose intentions were to save Italy from its inadequate Liberal government and propose a new regime which would be the salvation of Italy. All the while, Mussolini used his character and skills at discourse to reassure to the Liberal government that fascism, unlike Socialism, was not to be feared, this could be regarded as another opportunist strike from Mussolinis part for it served him into luring Giliotti into thinking that Fascism (Mussolinis PFN) could be controlled and absorbed into the existing political regime, meaning the official government list of coalition partners, to form an anti-socialist government coalition. This would come to be one of the biggest mistakes from the Liberals side, for; of course, Mussolini used absorption to his advantage for it gave him a level of respectability as a political party and therefore allowed the Fascists to win more seats, this was a great occasion for Mussolini for he wanted to come to power through parliamentary means. Then again, as expected, this invitation by Giolitti to enter the coalition was the result of a loss of liberal maintained seats in the parliament; seats that were lost to the Socialist party. This situation in which Giolitti was forced to look towards coalitions for support is linked to when he had formed a coalition with the Popolari, which was a political party formed by radical Catholics. This, again, clearly shows the fundamental weakness of the Liberal government for it was completely dependant on this coalition to survive within the parliament and to ad to its already mentioned problems; this was a very problematic relationship because the Popolari were rather suspicious of the Liberals anti-clericalism. The fact that it was once before also dependent on the making of coalitions, the weaknesses of the Liberal Parliamentary System are shown to have been evident long before 1922. Likewise, a further great weakness that the Liberals possessed was the lack of political will to use their own power of violence against the Squadrisimo fascist squads in order to restrain them; and by being deficient in having this determination, the fascist squads continued to perform acts of violence which ensured the fascist to induce fear and therefore eliminate opposition by intimidation. Yet in contrary to all these factors affecting Mussolinis rise to power; his vagueness and lack of any definite political beliefs gave Mussolini a unique sense of ambiguousness, and due to this Mussolini was able to influence and manipulate people so that they would perceive fascism in the way he wanted the to; this opened many paths to Mussolini throughout his career as a politician. The actions of King, Victor Emmanuel, were also crucial in the process of Mussolinis rapid rise to power. This is mainly because the King could have stopped the fascist forces if only he had not been afraid of being replaced by his cousin, Aosta. He was afraid of this because he believed that his cousin, being a fascist sympathizer, would want to replace him if he dared to oppose Mussolini in any aspect. On the other hand, it is believed that the King believed Mussolinis claims that the Monarchy and Fascism could coexist and therefore acceded to his demands, and actually appointed him head of coalition government. On the other hand, it is also said that it was weakness which made the King give into fascism as easily, for he did not believe that anything could be done against fascism; that is was too strong. Nevertheless, it is also greatly believed that Fascism could have been destroyed in 1922, in the March on Rome, of only the King had been strong enough as to oppose Mussolini, because there was a great deal of disorganization within the Fascists, meaning there was a lack of planning of this supposedly great movement, plus Mussolini was under a immense amount of pressure (from the RAS), and was going through a great depression which made him somehow weaker and easier to defeat; and therefore the army could have easily stopped it if only orders have been transmitted to it. A counter argument for this claim that it was weakness which stopped the king from acting is that he thought that Italy was walking into a full-scale civil war, and therefore, to prevent it, he took no measures against Fasc ism, and that, in addition, in that time he was under a great deal of pressure, and ergo did not make what could have been the best decision. Another vital decision that the King took was to appoint Mussolini as Prime minister, although this decision could also be blamed on the weakness of the Liberal regime, because if it had not been so indecisive, the King would not have been forced to take this step towards a dictatorship, thus if the Liberal government had been more able, and had not underestimated Mussolini then the King would not have been under so much pressure and would have probably made a better decision than to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister. But as we can see, the March on Rome, instead of leading to a disastrous moment in Mussolinis life as it could have; it was the catalyst to the rise of power of Mussolini, for it provided the exact amount of pressure the King needed to make Mussolini the youngest Prime Minister of Italy. With the above historical debate we can say that the First World War provided the necessary conditions for Mussolinis rise to power, however, these were not sufficient and therefore other affecting factors were eventually needed to complete his successful rise to power, such as the terribly weak Liberal government which enabled the Italian people to look elsewhere for strong leadership and ergo turn to Fascism as an alternative and solution to the Socialist threat, and the brilliant tactics that Mussolini uses as well as his great deal of opportunism which made him capable to turn disastrous situations to his advantage. Such as the Matteoti crisis which forced him to use his ability to speak in front of the masses and convince them of the justification for violence; he also benefited from this crisis by abusing the fact that all other forces in the parliament left hi alone and in control of it. Having said the above, it can be understood that Mussolinis rise to power was, as Richard Parrish describes: a multi-causal phenomenon.

Overview of Steven Pinkers Theories

Overview of Steven Pinkers Theories Introduction and brief biography Steven Pinker is a well-known psychologist who writes, researches and lectures on language and cognition. As well as being an experienced and widely published researcher in the academic field he is also well known to non-scientists for his easily accessible popular science books covering evolutionary psychology and language development. He is arguably responsible for bringing the complex field of cognitive psychology to the layperson and a short analysis of his work and ideas should provide insight into why he is so popular and successful both to academic and lay readers. Steven Pinker is Canadian American, born in 1954 and educated at McGill University and the Ivy League colleges of Cambridge, Massachusetts. His official biography describes him as an experimental psychologist, currently Harvard College Professor and Johnstone Family professor in the Department of Psychology (Pinker 2003). He is a teaching as well as research scientist and writes for the academic press and popular press as well as his own books. He credits his interest in science to a teenage present of science books on the mind (Pinker 2004b). In interviews Pinker is often self deprecating, indicating that scientists don’t always choose a specific field due to overwhelming interest, rather due to circumstance and being in the right place at the right time (Pinker 2004b). Despite being an immensely successful author with his most recent book being ranked at number 624 in the bestseller list of Amazon.com[1], he does not seek to either overawe or be condescending to the regular lay reader, instead treating them, in his own words, as an â€Å"old college room mate† and respecting their intelligence (Pinker 2004b). Pinker’s ideas and impact Pinker is often known for his debates with fellow scientists such as Steven Rose in which the nature versus nurture concept is discussed. Pinker is described as the leading spokesman for the view that we are made by nature as well as nurture (Appleyard 2007). Pinker is a firm believer that our genes dictate how we act our lives through the mind being the critical determiner of who survives and passes their genes on to their offspring; whereas Rose believes that all living systems are radically indeterminate and continually construct their own futures (Brockman 1998). One of the reasons for the controversy of Pinker’s ideas is the echoes of Nazism as, by saying that we are a product of our genes, it suggests that some are genetically programmed to be inferior to others. Pinker addresses the idea that humans develop purely based on their experiences in the book The Blank Slate, thus called because of the common belief that the mind is a blank slate and the way a person develops is purely a product of culture and socialisation (Rakoff 2002). He points out that anyone having children can see that they are born with identities and the fact that children are affected by upbringing is not proof of causation, rather being merely correlation. However he is also able to argue the other side, as it were, when he explains that, whilst genes can have something to do with behaviour, the study of behavioural genetics is, in his words, ‘a paradox’ (Pinker 2003). In particular the influence of culture will affect many lifestyle choices, with serious effects on development. He exhorts everyone to ‘try to reach the best point in the range [of temperament and talent]’ (Pinker 2003). He protests that the biology of consciousness offers a bette r explanation for how people ‘work’ than the existence of an, un provable in his view, immortal soul (Pinker 2007a). He suggests that we all develop as a product of our brains, and other people have similar brains so all have a similar capacity. He further develops his view by stating that the soul is in fact the information-processing activity of the brain and that all emotion can be tied to specific neural activity (Pinker 2004a). This is a controversial view as many philosophers and sociologists would not like to believe that our freedom of thought is not in fact freedom at all, rather an automatic response from our genes. One of Pinker’s key ideas is his words / rules account of language in which he suggests that there is a contrast between the regular and irregular inflection of words and this is due to there being 2 distinct computational mechanisms for the processing of these words (Berent, Pinker Shimron 2002). He set this out in his oft cited[2] piece entitled Rules of Language published in 1991 in the journal Science (Pinker 1991). The language processing of the brain was described as modular and independent of real-world meaning suggesting a genetic basis to the development of language, presumably because logically language would only be processed in connection with the meaning of that language. Pinker has more recently written about human nature in a wider context than language. One such example is where he explains that romantic love has a paradoxical logic, where in fact there is not a neat matching of mates according to the rules of shopping – eg matching purely on the grounds of features and quality (Pinker 2008). He also commends other people on their influence, with one such account being his 2007 commendation of Paul Allen’s contribution to the scientific world (Pinker 2007b). An individual must be well respected and influential in his own right to be asked to comment upon the influence of others. However he has been subject to controversy, with people suggesting that his book The Blank Slate denies the existence of sex discrimination. However he defends his position, indicating that he has merely shown empirical evidence about the differences in talents, temperaments and life priorities between men and women (Pinker 2006). He describes how he lost sleep over the gender chapter yet also points out that in the first 2 years post publication no one had any problem with that chapter (Quixote 2006). It was only later that Pinker’s work was used out of context by Larry Summers, then president of Harvard University, who said that innate [genetic] differences were the reason why fewer women succeeded in maths and science (Bombardieri 2005). Thus the message of the book reached a greater audience, but the audience misconstrued what had been said originally. He often has to defend his work, or clarify it to others who misinterpret e.g. (Pinker, Ullman 2003, Pinker, Ullman 2002) and the much longer opinion article (Pinker, Ullman 2002). No doubt, though, if a researcher or author has to defend their work it means that others are noting what they say enough to criticise, and then publishers care enough to seek the rejoinders. It is possible to obtain impact factor trend graphs for published articles. This provides an indication of the journal’s relative impact, thus the consequent impact that the article within that journal may have. Analysis of the 3 most cited articles from Pinker provides the data for table 1 below. Obviously the most cited articles are older but the journals in which the articles are published have high impact. Table 1 An analysis of the journal impact and number of times cited for the 3 most popular Pinker articles[3] In a profile published last year the Sunday Times refer to Pinker’s ideas as ‘incendiary’ and describe him as a global science celebrity (Appleyard 2007). Despite the possible Nazism connotations that could be attributed to his ideas, there is also a clear logic to the brain containing the blueprint to our development. If there are genes that decide our hair colour and skin colour then why not other features? No one would deny that genetic malfunctions such as occur in Downs Syndrome clearly show the effect that defective genes can have from birth. Why should only defective genes be influential? Pinker says that it hard to judge his own influence, but that more people of more cultures and races are [now] open to the idea that biology can have some answers to human life and its workings (Quixote 2006). He also suggested the topic for the annual question for The Edge Foundation for 2006 as ‘My Dangerous Idea’. His account of his 2005 includes instances such as the Summers’ speech mentioned above, as well as other research which endeavoured to show that race and intelligence do not exist. The lasting influence of these ideas (and his own work and reputation) is that people perceive Pinker as propounding dangerous ideas that fuel bigotry (Brockman 2006). However bigotry isn’t created by the influence of one scientist. Pinker’s work may be used as evidence to support existing bigotry but support is not the same as initiation. References Appleyard, B. 2007, Steven Pinker knows what’s going on inside your head, October 14th 2007, The Times, London. Berent, I., Pinker, S. Shimron, J. 2002, The nature of regularity and irregularity: evidence from Hebrew nominal inflection, Journal of psycholinguistic research, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 459-502. Bombardieri, M. 2005, Summers remarks on women draw fire, January 17th 2005 edn, Boston Globe, Boston. Brockman, J. 2006, 01/01/2006-last update, Edge: The World Question Centre 2006 [Homepage of The Edge], [Online]. Available: http://www.edge.org/q2006/q06_3.html#pinker [accessed 30/10/2008] . Brockman, J. 1998, 25/03/1998-last update, Edge: PINKER VS. ROSE-A DEBATE (PART I) [Homepage of The Edge], [Online]. Available: http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/pinker_rose/pinker_rose_p1.html [accessed 30/10/2008] . Pinker, S. 2003, , Steven Pinker About- long biography [Homepage of Harvard University], [Online]. Available: http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/about/longbio.html [accessed 30/10/2008] . Pinker, S. 2008, Crazy love, Time, vol. 171, no. 4, pp. 82-83. Pinker, S. 2007a, The mystery of consciousness, Time, vol. 169, no. 5, pp. 58-62, 65-6, 69-70. Pinker, S. 2007b, Time 100 scientists thinkers. Paul Allen, Time, vol. 169, no. 20, pp. 112. Pinker, S. 2006, The gender debate: science promises an honest investigation of the world, Nature, vol. 442, no. 7102, pp. 510. Pinker, S. 2004a, How to think about the mind, Newsweek, vol. 144, no. 13, pp. 78. Pinker, S. 2004b, Steven Pinker, Current biology : CB, vol. 14, no. 21, pp. R909. Pinker, S. 2003, Are your genes to blame?, Time, vol. 161, no. 3, pp. 98-100. Pinker, S. Bloom, P. 1990, Natural-Language and Natural-Selection, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 707-726. Pinker, S. Prince, A. 1988, On Language and Connectionism Analysis of a Parallel Distributed-Processing Model of Language-Acquisition, Cognition, vol. 28, no. 1-2, pp. 73-193. Pinker, S. Ullman, M. 2002, Combination and structure, not gradedness, is the issue, Trends in cognitive sciences, vol. 6, no. 11, pp. 472-474. Pinker, S. Ullman, M.T. 2003, Beyond one model per phenomenon, Trends in cognitive sciences, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 108-109. Pinker, S. Ullman, M.T. 2002, The past and future of the past tense, Trends in cognitive sciences, vol. 6, no. 11, pp. 456-463. Pinker, S. 1991, Rules of Language, Science, vol. 253, no. 5019, pp. 530-535. Quixote, D. 2006, July 4th 2006-last update, 10 questions for Steven Pinker [Homepage of Gene Expression], [Online]. Available: http://www.gnxp.com/blog/2006/07/10-questions-for-steven-pinker.php [accessed 30/10/2008] . Rakoff, D. 2002, Questions For Steven Pinker, 15th September 2002, The New York Times, Ney York. Tarr, M.J. Pinker, S. 1989, Mental Rotation and Orientation-Dependence in Shape-Recognition, Cognitive psychology, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 233-282. 1 [1] Data obtained from www.amazon.com at 09:20 on 30/10/2008 [2] 318 citations as at 30/10/2008. Data from ISI Web of Knowledge [3] Citation information obtain from ISI Web of Knowledge Journal Citation reports for social science journals on 30th October 2008 available at http://admin-apps.isiknowledge.com/JCR/JCR?RQ=HOME.

Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

"Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you're going to get," suggests Tom Hanks in the motion picture "Forrest Gump". He utilizes this metaphor to align a box of chocolates as a symbol for life. Symbolism serves as a useful tool to convey a message or point subtly so that the concept lingers in the mind of the reader, who then establishes a relation in his or her mind with that object and the message. Hawthorne uses symbolism in The Scarlet Letter extensively to express the underlying truths about the stifling nature of Puritan society and the dispositions of the characters in the novel. Such elements as nature, color, and light; the scarlet letter itself; as well as the scaffold, where the three pinnacles of the plot occur, operate on a firm foundation of symbolism. Nature, color and light are used as symbols throughout the novel to illustrate several areas of the story (Waggoner 154). The prison door, for example, was described as being composed of â€Å"oak and iron† and its coloring â€Å"sad† and â€Å"gray†, symbolizing the rigidity of the Puritan society against sinners (Waggoner 154). The rosebush situated outside of the prison door is like a â€Å"moral blossom† growing amongst the bitter weeds of society, in the â€Å"most unlikely of places† (Hawthorne). The placement of the rosebush in such a dank, improbable position as outside of a place housing sinners (the prison), imparts the fact that such an element of beauty and innocence is nevertheless able to be born out of a station with such an ill aura. Pearl is symbolic of the rosebush in that she was spawned from the same evil air of sin (Waggoner 156). However, her purity is just as real as that which comes from a origin of virtue (Waggoner 156). She is often associated with roses (Waggoner 156). For example, in the governor’s she cries and pleas that she must have one (Waggoner 156). In addition, her very name is an indication of the symbol she conveys (Waggoner 157). Like a pearl comes from the mangled, impure exterior of the oyster, Pearl comes from the equally impure and squalid exterior of the sin her parents willingly committed (Waggoner 157). Another nature related symbol comes in the forest. The forest itself holds its own variety of symbolism. â€Å"Freedom† is one expression of the forest. There is no reason for Hester and Dimmesdale to be secretive among the trees where no one can witness their union (Matthiessen 299).

huckleberry finn :: essays research papers

In the story of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain uses many different types of symbols to get Twains numerous messages across. Twain signifies the Mississippi river as a symbol to get away from society for Huck and Jim. Twain also criticizes the way society runs and the things it teaches everyone to be. The river vs. land setting in Huckleberry Finn symbolizes Huck's struggle with himself versus society; Twain suggests that a person shouldn't have to conform to society and should think for themselves.Throughout the novel, Mark Twain shows the society that surrounds Huck as just a little more than a set of degraded rules and authority figures. When the new judge in town allows Pap to keep custody of Huck, adopters are things he doesn't need and doesn't care for. Twain gives Huck the power to think for himself, and come to adult conclusions, which show Twains message; think for yourself.Mark Twain's book Huckleberry Finn is for the reader to interpret for him or herself. But any reader cou ld pick up on Huck's struggle with the freedom the Mississippi River gives him, and the society that holds him back. Huck realizes that he shouldn't have to conform, and he refuses to at the end of the book. Huck's trials and tribulations show the reader that he or she to think for themselves and not conform to societies standards from Huck's time period, or now. Mark Twain creatively invents many settings throughout The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; each setting effects the characters in different ways. One of the many motifs throughout the novel is the idea of freedom versus slavery. Through various incidents, lifestyles, and character developments taking place on land and water, Mark Twain is able to create two opposing worlds; i.e. one of freedom verses one of enslavement. Twain determines the characters' situations in life in accordance with each location and surroundings. Huck and Jim are constantly moving between these two worlds. For the most part, both are presented with the luxuries of freedom and serenity while on the river, which ends up changing both of their characters for the only as more of person, but a reliable friend. The reader gets a sense of Jim's kindness when he is willing to stand watch all night so Huck can get some extra rest.

Great Expectations and Family Relations :: Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essays

Charles Dickens remains one of the most prominent and certainly the most commercially successful literary artist of nineteenth century England. In addition, Dickens enjoyed a large readership in America. The author’s success on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean stems from his entertaining literary style and his deep respect for social values and the human condition he encountered and incorporated into his writing. Dickens was a prolific writer who drew upon his personal experiences and integrated a certain comic pathos in his writing to delight his reading audience. Dickens can be aptly termed a chronicler of English life as his novels and stories accurately reflect various societal ills and joys of both urban and suburban England. Indeed, his novels and stories continue to amuse and sadden readers of all ages today. This unit will attempt to introduce Charles Dickens and his work to middle school students. The primary focus of this unit is to examine Great Expectations as a novel rich in familial relationships. The novel will be read and studied as a myriad of interacting families, and hopefully these insights will be suitably translated to my students in such a manner as to heighten their awareness of familial relationships they encounter on a daily basis. Great Expectations will allow my students to experience glimpses of nineteenth century English family life as Dickens most capably perceived it. The questions and concerns evoked by the novel will also cause the students to reflect upon family concerns of twentieth century America. Although Dickens was one of eight children and fathered ten himself making him somewhat of a viable source concerning family relationships, the reader is cautioned not to expect only a discussion of the nuclear family from this unit but also a wide array of f amily-like relationships which are characteristic in Dickens’ writing. Great Expectations is a novel of hope and heartbreak, identity and intrigue. The story focuses upon a central character, Pip, who relates his adventures to the reader through Dickens’ stylistic use of the first person point of view. Pip is raised by his sister and her husband, Joe Gargery. Pip’s parents had already died and were buried in the graveyard by the marshes when we first meet him at the age of seven. The reader learns much from Dickens in the opening scenes of the story by his treatment of the family relationship which had been of primary importance to his central character.